Hcm Chapter 10 11 12

CHAPTER 1 cordial Influence The aftermath that words, carry finisheds, or presence of commonwealth concur on our attitudes, thoughts, feelings and demeanour Construal The fashion concourse submit the accessible environment. (How do you cons align up a couple of(prenominal) un mattechables doings? Is it polite, rude etc? ) Individual varietys aspects of personalities that learns lot unique kind psych analyses the individual in the place setting of a kind property, and it aims to identify universal human nature propertys that readys e rattlingone subject to complaisant brings, irrespective of neighborly class or culture Fundamental attri merelyion error xplaining our sustain or an early(a)wise(prenominal) pots air base on constitution characteristics a solitary. Underestimates kindly work on Behaviorism advent to understanding air through only reinforcing properties of events. (Positive, negative, penalisation, operant conditioning) Gestalt psych Studies subjective room in which an object appears in spates minds, rather than the objective, physical attri potentlyes of the subject. motorcargon perceiving a impression as a whole or else of the resume of its checks. Self-esteem The spot to which one views oneself-importance-importance-importance as good, commensurate and decentSocial cognition how plenty select, interpret, remember and subprogram hearty in tar guide a leakation to make judgments and decisions. CHAPTER 2 Hindsight Bias extravaganza of how some(prenominal) one could predict an outcome subsequently trick that it already happened Observational rule No random assignment, non sampleal, view and record mea aut henticments of native look Difficult to analyse certain air which f all in all out r argonly or in personal ( deals impartingness to supporter a rape victim descriptive anthropology Study of cultures by observe from the inside ie being a part of it Interrater reliability eliabili ty of an experiment establish on level of agreement from 2 or to a greater extent(prenominal) free judges archival analysis Secondary source education based on historical records manage newspapers, diaries etc. nevertheless information is limited and whitethorn be broken or in straight, and there is no way to asc fire it Correlational method 2 variables that be calculated and linear affinity observed Correlation coefficient degree to which 2 variables ar directly mote based to one an separate Surveys Asked questions somewhat attitudes or sortCan judge relationship between variables that atomic number 18 difficult to observe and argon capable of sampling representative segments of the population ergodic selection To ensure good representation. Experimental method random assignment to diverse conditions, ensuring that there is no bias Each replyent has equal fall out of being picked with no bias. Ensures conditions argon identical unless for the breakaway variabl e Independent variable protean that is flip-flopd to contrive if it has an effect on some other variable Dependent variable Variable that is persuaded by the independent variable.Dependent variable depends on the level of independent variable. p-value Signifi flush toilett if the value is less than 5% that the results king be callable to chance f workers. upcountry rigour Degree to which items within the test measure the construct. naught besides the independent variable can expunge the dependent variable. By keepling for all indifferent variables and random assignment remote rigorousness end to which experiment can be generalised to other situations Psycho luculent realism extent to which psychological go in an experiment are convertible to those that occur in everyday lifeCover myth disguised discrepancy of a removes neat purpose. This gains psych realism as the story makes people feel they are in a real event. Field look into Increases foreign(a) validity by shooting appearance outside the research laboratory in natural settings Replications Ultimate test of external validity. Generalised to different settings, people etc. Meta-analysis Averages results of 2 or to a greater extent studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable. Basic research Done stringently out of curiosity to find answers utilize research Intends to solve particular problems Cross-cultural researchResearch done with other cultures to see if psychological shapees are present or if unique to certain cultures Informed consent pledge to participate, full awareness of the nature of experiment that is explained in advance Deception Mis track participants around reliable purpose of study Institutional review visiting card reviews reasearch and its ethicality before allowing it to be conducted. must include at least 1 scientist, nonscientist and person nonaffiliated with institution. Debriefing Explaining to participants the true purpose of s tudy and what transpired at the end of the experiment. CHAPTER 3 Automatic thinkingUnconscious, inunpaid worker, effortless Controlled thinking is to a greater extent than toilsome and deliberate Schemas mental structures that organise our association close(predicate) the tender realism, which prepare the information we nonice, think and remember. Applied to race or sex, schemas are stereotypes. We confound schemas be move they help us figure out whats going on. approachability extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of peoples minds and thus managely to be apply when qualification judgments somewhat the social world. Priming Automatic thinking. Process by which recent experiences increase accessibility of a schema, trait or concept. ome chronically accessible due to chivalric experience constantly active and ready to use to interpret am commodiousuous situations accessible be political campaign it is related to a current goal accessible because of recent experiences Self-fulfilling sooth regulariseing Prediction that causes an event to come true based on positive reinforcements between belief and expression Peoples expectations of what a nonher is like - influences how they act to the person - causes a pition consistent with peoples original expectations - makes expectations come true Often occurs exactly in some occasions, peoples true nature provide win out in social interactionJudgmental heuristic mental strategy and crosscut to make quick and effective judgments. Using schemas. availability heuristic Basing a judgment on self or others on the ease with which you bring something to mind. joined to accessibility. But some basis what is easily recalled is non exemplary of overall picture, leading to wrong conclusions Representativeness heuristic Classifying something correspond to how similar it is to a typical case. wish well how similar Wang Nan is to all China people. Or leveling well in tests because asi an Base stride Information Information almost relative oftenness of members of different categories in the populationContents of our Schemas is influenced by our culture Differences in Western and eastmostern Culture Western uninflected Thinking guidanceing on properties of objects without considering surrounding context (individualistic culture influence) Eastern Holistic Thinking focus on the overall context, in ways that objects relate to each other ( collective culture) Controlled thinking thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful. Can switch on and off at forgeting. Counterfactual thinking mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what office establish been. Aiyah wherefore never confirm gold only when i got silverThought suppression get d bear to avoid thinking more or less something we would prefer to forget. Like ex gf, stomachache etc. Monitoring forge automatic part, searches for evidence that the un neglect ed thought is about to intrude the consciousness. Then the operating process controlled part comes into play. The effortful attempt to distract oneself by decision something else to think of. When one is lacking in nada or preoccupied (under cognitive load), the operating process lets the intruding thought go unchecked leading to hyperaccessibility the unwanted thought occurs with high oftenness The ore you estimate not to think of something, the to a greater extent it intrudes. Overconfidence parapet People unremarkably capture too a good deal confidence in the accuracy of judgments (sure pass sure this sure that) break this barrier by addressing cocksureness directly, giving possibility of them being wrong strickle people directly some basic statistical and methodological principles to learn how to case correctly, and hoping they lead assume these principles CHAPTER 4 Social Perception study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about others Nonverbal co mmunication how people communicate intentionally or unintentionally without words. ody language, touch etc. Mirror neurons brain cell that respond when we serve an action and when we see mortal else perform the selfsame(prenominal) action. When people yawn, we yawn. automatically and involuntarily. Encode discourse nonverbal behavior like smiling decrypt To interpret the meaning of nonverbal behavior. was the smile substantial or sarcastic 6 major emotions that can be recognised cross-culturally happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust. Maybe contempt and pride. defecate-to doe with leads one part of the facial gesture registers one emotion while another part registers a ifferent emotion. blend of anger and disgust. This makes decoding sometimes in absolute queer rules particular to each culture, and dictate the type of emotions people should show. Emblems gestures with clear, well understood definitions middle finger, gangsta Implicit personality possiblenes s Type of schema utilise to gathering various personality traits together. Someone who is kind is likewise generous Relying on schemas might lead us to make wrong assumptions, might even lapse to sterotype One cultures implicit personality hypothesis might be different from another.America has Artistic personality but Chinese have no schema for that. ascription scheme how we infer causes of peoples behavior Internal attribution Attribute a behavior to someones personal traits didnt pee-pee money cos selfish External attribution Attribute behavior to a situation outside of persons traits didnt give money cos train was approach shot Covariation model To form a rational and logical attribution about what caused a behavior, we note the word form between the presence or absence of attainable causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs. why she dont lend me? did she use to lend me? does she lend to others? Consensus information extent to which others behave the sam e way towards the same stimulus as me (low consensus boss only yells at me) Distinctiveness info how the actor responds to other stimuli (low oddment boss yells at others too) Consistency information frequency with which the observed behavior between same actor and same stimulus occur over time and circumstance (high consistency boss yells at me everytime he sees me) When the above info mix in into a pattern, attribution is made.Internal attribution consensus and distinctiveness low, consistency high External attribution consensus, distinctiveness, consistency high Situational attribution assumes something unkn ingest because consistency low. People rely more on consistency and distinctiveness info and less on consensus info. Correspondence bias Tendency to infer that peoples behavior corresponds to their dispositions and personality. I sit on reserved home because i am disrespectful Perceptual salience seeming importance of information that is the focus of peoples attentio n. If we cant see the situation, we ignore its importance. e pay attention to people instead (easier to see than the situation) and tend to think that they cause their own behavior. Two step process of qualification attributions 1. Internally attribute. (quickly and spontaneously) 2. Then ad exactly this attribution by considering the situation the person was in. But often, we dont ad scarcely enough, and when we are distracted or preoccupied, we skip this step, making an radical inborn attribution. (requires effort and conscious attention) if we consciously wispy down and think carefully, and if were motivated to reach an accurate judgment, we go out go the 2nd step.Actor/observer difference tendency to see other peoples behavior as caused by personality but to see ones own behavior as caused by situations Because of perceptual salience notice others behavior more than the situation. notice our own situation more than our behavior. What is most salient to me? i dont constan tly look inward. I look outward-bound and therefore my situation more than myself. Because of information availability. I k direct more about myself so have more consistency and distinctiveness information about myself. and therefore EXTERNALLY ATTRIBUTE. self-serving attribution endency to take credit for my success by versed attribution, but blame others or situation for failure. Really just want to maintain self-esteem by doing so. We as well just want others to think well of us. repayable to the type of information available to people, I know i didnt score well for the test because it is unfair. I know i am smart. but my instructor thinks i am stupid. Different info. Defensive attributions explanations for behavior that defend us from vulnerability and mortality feelings accept that bad things only happen to bad people. or terminal diseases happen to us and we take step to pass up the fact. Belief in a just world) In countries with extreme rich and poor, just world belief s are more common, compared with countries with more evenly distributed wealth. Self-serving bias prevalent in many a(prenominal) westerly societies but less in Asiatic cultures where value of modesty and harmony is valued (china, coolnessan etc) individualistic cultures look outside themselves to explain failure collectivisticic cultures look inward to explain failure, garnering sympathy and favor which streng hences harmony between people CHAPTER 5 Self-concept knowledge about who we are Self-awareness act of thinking about ourselvesCocktail party effect in a herd room yu catch someone take ur mark with selective attention. after hearing own bring in in irrelevant menstruation, percentage of errors for the relevant stream change magnitude spotlight effect mistaken impressino that ppl are noticing u actually only 23% Self-awareness and self-concept combine to create identity. As children, we have concrete self-concepts, referencing searching observable characteris tics like age, sex, hobbies. As adults, we emphasise psychological states and considerations of how others judge us Independent view of self Defining oneself in ground of ones own inseparable thoughts, feelings, and actions.Interdependent view of self Defining oneself in terms of relationships with others and recognising that behavior is often determined by thought, feelings, and actions of others. Westerns take more to independent sense of self than Asian culture. Women have more relational mutuality commission more on relationships. More probable to demonstrate emotions than men Men have collective interdependence focusing on memberships in larger separates. Like sports teams Self-awareness theory when people focus attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare behavior to internal standards and value. hen people are self-aware, it reminds them of a sense of even upfulness and wrong and are less likely to err. East asians likely to have outside perspective of self ( how others see them). Western have insider perspective (individualistic) causal theories Theories about what influences feelings and behavior like absence makes the demonstrate grow fonder Reason-generated attitude change attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for your attitudes. you assume your attitude matches the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalise. break up because she chews mumble loudly.Self-perception theory when our feelings and attitudes are uncertain, we infer the feelings by observing our behavior and the situation which it occurs. We infer only when we are not sure how we feel. And we judge whether our behavior genuinely reflects how we feel or because it is the situation that made us act that way. not sure if i like untainted music. but i get a line to 92. 4 entrustingly. therefore i must love classical music. if gf listens to korean song and not me who tuned in, so i am unlikely to conclude that i listen because i like it Intrins ic motivation esire to engulf in an activity because i enjoy it inessential motivation desire to engage because of the takingss that come with it harmonize to self-perception theory, If i were initially intrinsically motivated, but was instead paid to do it, the motivation go out slowly change to extrinsic and ill eventually lose subtile interest for it. Over- plea effect results when i view my behavior as caused by extrinsic reasons, making me underreckoning the extent to which the behavior is caused by intrinsic reasons Task-contingent rewards rewards for doing a task regardless of resultsPerformance-contingent rewards rewards from how well i perform a task 2 factor theory of emotion idea that emotional experience is a result of a 2-step self-perception process in which i first experience physiological input then seek an purloin explanation for it. Misattribution of arousal making mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do standing on a swaying duo and receiving a request to do a lot from a chiobu. your initial heightened heart rate due to the scary bridge is misattributed to u liking the lady shoplifter Appraisal theories of emotionYour emotion depends on the way you interpret or explain the event, in the absense of psychological arousal. You want to go med sch. your friend gets in instead. you feel endanger and therefore moody. Fixed mindset we have a set make out of an ability that cannot change. fixed intelligence, athletic ability etc. likely to give up after setbacks. less likely to hone skills growth mindset abilities are malleable qualities that can aim and grow. view setbacks as opportunities to improve Social coincidence theory learn about own abilities and attitudes by comparing with othersDownward social comparison compare with someone lousier to feel better about myself Upward social comparison compare with someone better to have a goal to strive towards Social tune up crowds of friends or people ado pting similar attitudes through social influence Self-regulatory resource model stats that we must have plenty of energy when we are trying to control our actions. Suggests that the level of glucose in the bloodstream is spent when we utilise self-control Impression management attempt to get others to see me the way i want to be seen. FacebookIngratiation using flattery or praise to make myself likeable to another, often a higher-status person (ANGKAT) self-handicapping people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so if they do poorly on a task, people avoid blaming themselves. Self-handicap by creating obstacles that cut off the likelihood they will succeed on a task. So if they fail, they blame on these obstacles rather than lack of ability. Includes drugs, alcohol, failure to prepare Also by devising ready-made excuses in case they fail. Test anxiety, moods, symptoms, events from the past.We may evntually see the excuses and exert less effort in future. People dislike ot hers who self-handicap so they run the guess of informal sanctions. Eastern cultures like to save face more than horse opera cultures, and have a more independent view of themselves than ang moh. CHAPTER 6 Cognitive discrepancy the feeling of self-consciousness when you hold 2 or more inconsistent cognitions. caused by an action that is unremarkably against ones usual, typically positive self-conception reduce dissonance by changing behavior (stop smoking) changing dissonant cognitions (nah.. igs dont cause cancer) adding new cognitions (my grandpa smoke so much also never kena) people experiencing dissonance deny or distort reality to reduce it. touch bias when people think of how they will react to future negative events, they overestimate the intensity of length of their negative emotional reactions. Like overestimate emo-time when u break up The need to maintain self-esteem leads us to rationalise our behavior, which may not be rational thinking. Post-decisional dissonanc e when after making a decision you believe more in your pickaxe and devaluate the rejected choice. he more heavy and more difficult to revoke the decision, the greater the dissonance. eg which car to by vs which cup irrevocability of a decision always increases dissonance and the motivation to reduce it. lowballing technique initially quote low price, after customer decides to buy, say it was an error, actual price is higher. frequently customer will still buy. Because there is already a fealty of sorts. Decision to behave immorally Cheating if u didnt see the chem paper you wouldnt have gotten into SMU Dissonance theory says ill justify the action by minimising the negative aspects of the action i chose. . e. changing my attitude about chisel that it is not so bad and everyone does it. In terms of personal determine the cheat and non-cheat initially starts at the same attitude. after one decides their path, the attitude towards cheating diverges sharply as a consequence of a ctions, travel towards one extreme (from its not bad vs its not good diverge to cheating is no big deal. vs expel cheaters ) Justification of effort tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they worked arduous to attain. the tougher the initiation, the more we like the root (go OCS i like it so much)External justification reason for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual, in order to receive a large reward or avoid severe punishment friend altered an ugly dress so now cannot return. since she already changed it, just tell her u like it. you dont want to hurt her by construction it sucks. Internal justification reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself like attitude. when cannot find external justification, will attempt to find internal. if the same friend is very rich and buying another dress isnt a problem, your external justifying reasons for lying to her is minimal. o you experience internal justification, by n oticing some good things about the dress. eventually, you will like the fugly dress. This is counterattitudinal advocacy occurs when we claim to have an conviction that differs from our true beliefs. when we do this with little external justification, and more internal justific, we will believe its more and more like the lie we told. Hypocrisy induction arousal of dissonance by making statements that counter peoples behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavor.This purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior counterattitudinal advocacy ensample. people who are made mindful of their hypocrisy between the statements they make and their initial beliefs begin to practice what they preach. In suitable punishment dissonance when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in devaluing the forbidden activity or object. light punishment cause s insufficient external justification, which makes one internally justify. eg. child bully. f punishment is harsh sufficient external justification (i dont outfox him cos instructor will cane). if punishment is barmy, (why am i not beating him up? ) the bully will come to an end from beating, even though he wants to. but he lacks complete justification for not beating, so he will reduce dissonance by persuade himself that he does not really want to beat up the guy. Small reward or mild punishment leads to internal justification - self- sentiment - runing change. Self-persuasion undestroyable form of attitude change that results from attempts at exculpation. ore lasting that direct attempts at persuasion by others because persuasion takes place internally. Ben franklin effect when we do a privilege for a person we do not like, we will end up liking the person more. How do u hate your victims? convince yourself that the ppl u killed are less than human convince yourself the y deserved to be hurt similar to nazis convincing themselves jews are subhuman Dissonance-reducing behavior less prevalent in collectivist cultures on the surface. Also may be that self-justification occurs in collectivistic societies in more communal ways. In japan, dissonance reduced after saying a dumb task is interesting.In addition, if a jap observes a person he knows and likes saying the that the boring task is interesting, he himself will experience dissonance and change attitudes. CHAPTER 8 Conformity Changing ones behavior due to real or imagined influences of others Informational social influence influence of others leads us to adjust because we see them as a source of info to guide behavior. We believe that others interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours, and will help us choose an appropriate course of action. women learning what an attractive physical structure is from family, friends and media. ens remains must be muscular (mens health, mi ddle schools etc) Private borrowing conform to behavior of others because genuinely believe that the other people are correct Public residence conform to behavior of others without necessarily believing what they do is correct. to avoid looking silly or foolish. By wanting to get things right, you are more vulnerable to informational social influence. In low importance conditions conform to others less than in high importance conditions. (same answers for put and AS midterm) The more important the decision is to us, the more we will rely on others for information.Contagion rapid overspread of emotions or behavior through a conclave eg mass panic of war of the worlds Mass psychogenetic distemper occurrence of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause in a concourse of people. begins with one or a few reporting physical symptoms, then others who observe these unforgiving people were more likely to fall dingy too. Mass media also disseminates mass psychogenic i llness quickly. maybe H1N1 swine flu n sars. Ambiguous situation The more uncertain you are, the more u will rely on others. Crisis situation we see how others respond and do likewise (stampedes) When others are experts he more expertise a person has, he will be a valuable guide in an ambiguous situation Social averages rules for acceptable behaviors, values and beliefs deviants can be ridiculed, punished, rejected Normative social influence when influence of others leads us to conform to be liked and accepted by them. (all the 369 tattoos on forehead) results in public compliance and not necessarily snobby acceptance we tend to wear whats stylish but do u really believe that mat caps are that nice? womens attempts to create ideal body that u learnt through informational influence. men go gym Asch line (long line study) onformity occured because of fear of being the lone dissenter we conform for prescriptive reasons because we dont want social disapproval even from complete strange rs. also, we feel discomfort and tension when we stand up for beliefs and go against the group What if you resist normative social influence? group will try to align you with their beliefs by increased communication through teasing and long discussions if all fails, then start to say negative things and fill from me Cultural definitions of attractive body changes throughout the years. last time, fat girl was attractive, because looks healthy and fertile.Today, models all so skinny. Jap culture places great emphasis on conformity than american culture. Normative pressure to be skinny is more for Japs than americans Social impact theory likelihood that i respond to social influence by others depends on strength how important to me is the group? immediacy how close is the group to me in berth and time during the attempt to influence me? number how many people in the group? conformity will increase as the factors above increase. Group size and social impact Conformity increased when no of group increased. beyond 3 people, conformity does not increase much.Groups we identify strongly with and we like will exert more normative influence on us. Conforming to a group earns idiosyncracy credits (can now and again deviate from group norms without sanction) When no one else in the group believes the same as you, normative social influence is the highest. You tend to conform to them. But if you have 1 ally, pressure to conform greatly decreases. (12 ferocious men example) when groups culture is collectivistic, people are exceedingly conforming because of factors like cooperation and loyalty. Conformity in collective cultures is a valued trait. but in western it is a negative trait.Hunting/Fishing culture (western) values assertiveness and independence. Agriculture (eastern) values value cooperative, conformity. minority influence case where minority of group members influence behavior of majority. through consistency. keep expressing the same view, and different m embers of minority must agree with one another. majority eventually takes notice. minorities exert influence through informational means, not normative. Majorities obtain public compliance through normative influence Minorities obtain private acceptance through informational influence. 12 angry men best example. Injunctive norms eoples perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved by others. impel behavior through punishment or rewards. Littering is wrong. DO non LITTER more powerful in the face but promote normative conformity. (public compliance) Descriptive norms perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether behavior is approved by others or not. Motivate behavior by informing people about what is effective or adaptive behavior. Littering is wrong (injunctive). thither are times where people are likely to litter (Descriptive norms) LITTERING IS NOT WHAT PEOPLE DO hitherLess powerful in the face but promote informational influen ce. creates positive change. Boomerang effect by giving an just as a norm, people who usually did less than the average might end up increasing the activity to meet the average, thereby defeating the purpose of decreasing the undesirable behavior. For example alcohol drinking. descriptive norm + injunctive norm assorted messages will have a positive effect on cutting down undesirable behavior. you used this much energy. On average, households use x amount of energy a day (descriptive what society does).You used X+2 energy ( (the face show disapproval is injunctive what is viewed as wrong. ) Obedience to situation behavior of soldiers made killing seem like the right thing (informational influence) and soldiers wanted to avoid rejection from others (normative influence) my lai village massacre. Milgrams studies government agency say it is essential you continue difficult to say no to insistent authority Normative influence acting on their influence in order to be accepted by o thers When the authority unexpended the room lack of informational influence When authority was replaced by a regular person he lacks expertise, no incentive to followImportance of authority figures when 2 authority figures disagreed about whether to continue the study, thereby creating ambigous definition of the situation, 100% of the participants halt conforming. Other reasons we come after Conforming to the wrong norm Once u follow one norm, it is hard to switch midstream. (slowly realising that delivering electric shocks was not good but still continued) Difficult to abandon the obey authority norm in Milgram because experiment was fast-paced, preventing reflection on the situation. of self-justification. Initial agreement to do the test created internal pressure to obey subsequently.As participants delivered each shock, they justified in their heads, and each successive ladder made it hard to decide when to stop (215 and 230 volts not much different) of damage of personal r esponsibility. Experimenters are responsible for end results, and i am just following orders Unethical studies have Deception hiding true purpose of the study No true informed consent not told of the full details of study Psychological distress Not told they had right to withdraw Inflicted insight when the study ended, some learnt things about themselves that they didnt agree to beforehand (like obey orders to hurt someone)